IP Art Appreciation AIU Online Essay

Among the three artists Rubens, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt there have been many magnificent works of art. There are many different similarities and differences within each Artists works, aesthetic qualities and symbolic significance, as well as the artists’ points of view for each work of art. Rubens, (Peter Paul Rubens) â€Å"was a prolific seventeenth-century Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an exuberant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. He is well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects.† He began by visiting many famous artists and copying some of their works of art to develop a sort of sense of understanding for this type of art and how it is create. One of his paintings â€Å"Head of Medusa† can be seen by many as very grotesque, yet it is incredibly detailed and realistic. Medusa was known as a Gorgon in Greek mythology, and that was of evil. Many often described her as a winged type creature with head of snakes. Though, she was mortal and Perseus killed Medusa by decapitating her. Medusas death is found in the epic, Argonautica. This painting is most likely depicting the defeat of evil, and intended to be very dramatic, catching the viewers’ attention immediately. (Rubens.org 2013) Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio) â€Å"was an Italian artist active in Rome, Naples, Malta and Sicily between 1593 and 1610. He is commonly placed in the Baroque school, of which he is considered the first great representatives.† He was also one of the many artists that Rubens copied in his times of studying art. â€Å"The intense realism or naturalism, for which Caravaggio is now famous, is used in the majority of his paintings. He preferred to paint his subjects as the eye sees them, with all their natural flaws and defects instead of as idealized creations. This allowed a full display of Caravaggio’s virtuosic talents. He was also widely known as the most famous painter in Rome. His painting of Medusa in a leather jousting shield is very similar in meaning to that of Rubens painting, though  Caravaggio’s depicts that of the incident where the Goddess Athena placed in upon her shield because any who looked upon the head of Medusa would turn to stone. Both Caravaggio’s and Rubens painting are grotesque and dramatic, yet a beautiful display of their own imagery. (Caravaggio.org 2013) A writer named Walter Wallace gives an incredible and justifying description of Rembrandt ( Rembrandt Van Rijn). He states â€Å"In life Rembrandt suffered far more misfortune than falls to the lot of an ordinary man, and he bore it with the utmost nobility†¦. The child of poor, ignorant Dutch peasants, Rembrandt was born with near-miraculous skill in art. As an uneducated young man, he established himself in Amsterdam, married a beautiful, wealthy, sympathetic girl named Saskia, and enjoyed a brief period of prosperity and fame. However, because men of genius are always misunderstood by the public, fate snatched him by the throat†¦. Rembrandt responded with a masterpiece, a fact unfortunately apparent only to him and his wife. Everyone else, from the burghers to the herring-peddlers, thought the painting was dreadful. Rembrandt’s patrons hooted in rage and derision, demanding changes that the artist, secure in the knowledge that posterity would vindicate him, stubbornly refused to make.†(Wallace 1968) Like Caravaggio and Ruben, his works could be just as realistic and gruesome, yet seem to take your breath away at the meaningful imagery that they all portrayed. One of his paintings The Blinding of Samson, he depicts armored men holding down Samson, and taking a knife to his eyes, thus blinding him. This is of course representing the Blinding of Samson that is portrayed in the Holy Bible. This artist captures the viewers attention by the emotion of this moment. It was also very common to see stories of the Bible depicted in artists work during this time period due to The Roman Catholic Church’s stand point at that time. The three artists Ruben, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt all created amazing works of art, with similar interests as well as display of their own imagery. All three works of art depict similarity that suggests they are from the same time period, such as the style, detail of dramatic facial expressions, and that each was of some sort of mythology or theory that they firmly believed on or felt an intense obligation to share. References: Caravaggio, The Complete Works. (2013). Retrieved on September 28, 2013 from: http://www.caravaggio-foundation.org/Medusa,-painted-on-a-leather-jousting-shield,-c.1596-98.html Peter Paul Rubens, The Complete Works. (2013). Retrieved on September 29, 2013 from: http://www.peterpaulrubens.org/biography.html Wallace, Walter. (1968) â€Å"The Legend and the Man,† in The World of Rembrandt: 1606-1669. pp. 17-25.

From a close study of the opening of the novel Essay

â€Å"From a close study of the opening of the novel; and with reference to other stages throughout, discuss the relationship of George and Lennie, commenting on how it relates to the theme of loneliness† By Matthew Keane In the novel, the two main characters, George and Lennie, have a parent-child relationship, as George leads the way for Lennie; he also gives him advice and teaches him. Lennie follows all advice that George gives him. The idea of a teacher-student relationship is evident because George shows all signs of intelligence; he gives all the advice, and has all the ideas. Lennie on the other hand, is mentally challenged, and needs all the advice that George can give him. Lennie’s mental capability is reflected in his descriptive appearance, he is often compared to animals, his actions and reactions are childlike, and he also has a bad memory. However, Lennie’s bad memory can lead to friction, as George can lost his temper with him because he often has to remind Lennie several times before he can remember. Overall, they’re more like father and son than equal adults. From the first time they are introduced, we immediately get the impression of one being a follower and another being a leader, we can tell this by the line, â€Å"They had walked in single file down the path, and even in the open one stayed behind the other† The word â€Å"even† in this sentence signifies that no matter what, George will always lead Lennie, even though there was plenty of space for Lennie to walk next to him, he still stayed behind George. The reader is given an immediate insight to Lennie’s character when Steinbeck uses animal imagery; most of his actions are compared to animals, â€Å"Lennie dabbled his big paw† These animal comparisons tells the reader that Lennie shares the innocent qualities, as most of his actions are made on impulse, and he doesn’t think about what he’s doing. Lennie also has a childlike innocence, because he has the mind of a child and again doesn’t think about his actions. However, Lennie’s animal-like behaviour shows that he can have an unpredictable nature, as his acting on impulse can have unexpected results. The childlike qualities that Lennie displays can sometimes lead to friction between him and George. This happens when Lennie’s memory loss causes George to lost his temper frequently, â€Å"So you forgot that already did you? I gotta tell you again do I? Jesus Christ, you’re a crazy bastard† This happens frequently in the novel, this quote is taken just after the bus driver drops them off at the wrong place, George has a reason to chastise Lennie about his poor memory, these outbursts also show that he is in control of Lennie. Steinbeck reinforces the point about who is in control of the relationship by the description if when Lennie keeps a dead mouse in his pocket, and George forces Lennie to give him the mouse. â€Å"Lennie’s closed hand slowly obeyed. George took the mouse and threw it across the pool to the other side, amongst the brush† The tone used by George â€Å"Give it here!† clearly shows that he is in control. When Lennie retrieves the mouse from the bushes, George shows he is in control by snapping his fingers, and then Lennie immediately returns the mouse. There is another purpose in this episode, which is to show us Lennie’s irresistible urge to pet things; as later on in the novel it has an important role, as the urge lands him in trouble when he accidentally kills Curley’s wife by breaking her neck. So this part in the novel his significance to tell us about Lennie’s urge to pet soft things. The stroking of soft things symbolises that Lennie wants a soft and easy life, and doesn’t want the hard life that he has now. Lennie wishes for something soft that represents the desire for something finer, to be held onto in literal reality leads to tragic consequences of Curley’s wife’s death, made more poignant, almost dramatic irony takes place at the moment the news arrives that confirms that the ranch is there’s. Clearly without George around, Lennie has no control. This control that George has over Lennie also means that Lennie is totally dependant on George. As a result, George often seems angry or upset at Lennie. In the opening, George seems easily angered because of the bus driver, we can tell this by the tone that he speaks to Lennie in, â€Å"You’re a crazy bastard† This brings the negative side of the relationship to the surface, â€Å"If I was alone, I could live so easy† This proves that George can see Lennie as a hindrance to his life, that without Lennie, George wouldn’t have to always look after him. George also bring up the subject of what happened in Weed, just to make Lennie feel bad, â€Å"Jus wanted to feel that girls dress†¦well, how the hell did she know you just wanted to feel her dress?† Also he makes Lennie feel bad by saying that it’s Lennie’s fault that they both lose their jobs, â€Å"I got you! You can’t keep a job and you lose me ever’ job I get† This long passage acts as a warning to what happens later in the barn with Curley’s wife, we also learn of what happened in Weed, â€Å"How the hell did she know you jus’ wanted to feel her dress? She jerks back and you hold on like it was a mouse. She yells and we got to hide in an irrigation ditch all days with guys looking for us† This shows us Lennie’s urge to touch soft things, such as a dress, or Curley’s wife hair. The incident with Curley’s wife has an uncanny resemblance to what happened in Weed, as while stroking Curley’s wife’s hair, she gets scared and tries to scream, Lennie tries to stop her screaming and holds on to her, but he unfortunately breaks her neck. Although George is quick to anger, he doesn’t want to hurt Lennie, when George realises he has hurt Lennie’s feelings, he immediately feels bad, â€Å"His anger left him suddenly, He looked across the fire at Lennie’s anguished face, and then he looked ashamedly at the flames† The true nature of their relationship is revealed as father and son when George apologises to Lennie and then explains to him, â€Å"No look! I was jus’ foolin’, Lennie. Course I want you to stay with me. Trouble with mice is you always kill em† He then tries to reason, â€Å"First chance I get, I’ll give you a pup. Maybe you wouldn’t kill it. That’d be better than mice.† This passage ends with George re-counting they’re shared dream, â€Å"We’ll have a big vegetable patch and a rabbit hutch and chickens† This last phase of the opening chapter clearly shows how George also gets much from this relationship. The unreserved love that Lennie extends to George sets them both apart from the other drifters and farm hands who generally have nothing. â€Å"Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They don’t belong no place.† Even though, while angry, George tells Lennie that he could behave like the other men, â€Å"If I was alone I could live so easy†¦.when the end of the month came I could take my fifty bucks and go into town and get whatever I want† His true feelings are revealed later while George is telling slim why he and Lennie are so close, he tells Slim of how one time he abused Lennie’s trust, while swimming in the Sacramento river, he tells Lennie to dive in the water, even though he cannot swim. George then dives into the river to save Lennie, and since then George realises how much Lennie depends on George. This closeness is confirmed by George’s reaction when Curley’s wife’s body is found, â€Å"Maybe they’ll lock ‘im up an’ be nice to him† George also tries to defend Lennie as he knows that Lennie didn’t mean to kill Curley’s wife, â€Å"‘Lennie never done it in meanness’ he said ‘All the time he done bad things but he never done one of ’em mean'† The relationship established in the opening is then illustrated throughout the novel. The first time that George and Lennie meet Curley, George protects Lennie from Curley. â€Å"‘What the hell are you getting into it for?’ ‘We travel together’ ‘Oh so it’s that way?’ ‘Yeah it’s that way'† Also, when Curley’s wife first appears, George is again careful to make sure Lennie doesn’t make a mistake similar to the incident in Weed, â€Å"‘Listen to me you crazy bastard,’ he said firmly, ‘Don’t you even take a look at that bitch. I don’t care what she says or what she does'† The idea of a father-son relationship is continued during the passage where Curley is attacking Lennie, but Lennie will not fight back until George orders him to, â€Å"George†¦make um let me alone, George.† This shows us that Lennie waits for George to give him permission before he’ll do anything. When Candy finds Curley’s wife’s body, George makes it clear that he will not let anyone hurt Lennie â€Å"Maybe they’ll lock ‘im up an’ be nice to ‘im† This shows the strength of their relationship, as George knows that Lennie has done something bad, and should be punished, but he still doesn’t want anyone to harm him. Unfortunately, George was unable to save Lennie from himself, and so when Lennie accidentally kills Curley’s wife, George has no other option, but to shoot Lennie, he has to take this option because if Lennie was put into prison, he would be alone, with no-one to look after him properly, and condemned to a life if terror and madness. Curley, on the other hand, wants Lennie to die in pain and suffering. â€Å"Shoot for his guts. That’ll double ‘im over† Slim, being the voice of authority in the novel, gives the final confirmation on the killing of Lennie, â€Å"I guess we gotta get ‘im† In my opinion, the novel was very good, the shock ending was very surprising and unexpected, but a closer look throughout the novel foreshows us what happens, such signs as what happened in Weed, the mice that Lennie kills, the need to pet soft things, all of this gives the reader clues to what happens at the end. In my opinion, the relationship between George and Lennie is less than a relationship between two equal adults, and more like father-son, as one of the pair continually leads the other, while the other always follows

William Faulkner's story A rose for Emily Research Paper

William Faulkner's story A rose for Emily - Research Paper Example The story is an excellent example of strong fiction based story telling skills of Faulkner as it took place in his fictional city Jefferson of fictional country Yoknaparawpha (Kerr, p83). The story delicately knits the waves of past and present to form an intricate and attractive tale that basically aims to convey gratitude and empathy to a woman that encountered series of tragedies in her life and acted very strangely towards her life problems (Constance, p848). The story has been told by an unnamed narrator that uncovers the strange incidents of Emily’s life, her relationship with the people around her and the secret that she was hiding from people. The story describes different phases of her life in different parts. Each of the part focuses upon different time frame and different type of circumstances in the life of Emily. The story became very popular among the masses and critics were also inspired from the Faulkner style due to impressive description of several delicate i ssues and complexities of Emily life in very impressive manner. In the story Faulkner reflects his observations and understanding about abnormal psychology and mysteries solved by the time. He illustrates the relationship between North and South and portrays Emily as tragic heroine. It could be seen as a gothic horror tale or an explanation about strong links between past and present that could influence the behaviours and acts of people in very strange manner (Constance, p848). The intricate phenomenon of link between past and present has been explicitly defined in the story. In face the story is based upon the major theme of depiction of past strongly linked with the present. The dialogue of a major character in the story Gavin Stevens clearly tell about the main message of the story â€Å"The past is never dead. It’s not even past†. This idea has been depicted very beautifully and proficiently in the story because it describes the life of Emily spanning around 74 ye ars and different parts of the story take the readers backward and forward while chasing the occurrences in Emily’s life during different phases (Celia, p2) The description of different phases life of Emily linked with each other indicates that the memories pass from one generation to another and influence the present and future of the people by affecting their thinking and behaviours. For instance, when Emily started dating Homer Barron she was actually trying to feel free from the past control of her father and the traditions that always compel her to be a proper lady with values and norms (Clay, p43). The story spans around 74 years during which the readers could experiences the socio-political changes in Post and Pre Civil War era. It also shows the time when American South was on its midpoint and struggling to seek better ways that could honour the goods of past. The Civil was also ended up the greatness of the Old South that is often depicted in many stories written by Faulkner. He writes on the lines that there are some realities and development that people found difficult to accept and â€Å"the reality and myth are difficult to separate† (Faulkner, p78). The end of the Old South greatness was not easy to accept for many people who refused to accept the change in their position and conditions and it was really tough for them to realize the their old days were gone and the society was heading towards new era. These people tried to live in the golden memories of their past be cherishing their precious memories and strived to maintain the values and customers of South. Miss Emily was also among the people who were trying to live with the faded customs and rituals of the past. The folks of her town were also nostalgic and became

Demography of Yemen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Demography of Yemen - Essay Example It is to be noticed that this huge economic gap between the Arab countries is a recent phenomenon. In 1960s this gap was quite narrow with the exception of Kuwait and Libya. In 1968 the per capita GNP in Sudan was $130, $190 in Egypt, $290 in Syria and $500 in Saudi Arabia. But five following factors dramatically widen the gap since 1970s. (Winckler, 2005) The important factor of the poor socioeconomic condition in Yemen is political instability which hampers the socioeconomic development plans. Thus, despite the extensive natural resources of oil Yemen remains the poorest countries of the world. Encarta defines demography as "the study of human populations, including their size, growth, density, and distribution, and statistics regarding birth, marriage, disease, and death" The term demography hoists many images. Some people take it as set of numbers and tables to others it is a target group of commercial organizations trying to sell their products. All these views support the static entity of population. But to demographer it has dynamic aspect for the population is changing in many facets. (Winckler, 2005). The changing factors are fertility, mortality and migration. "Other dynamic aspects are the spatial distribution and various socioeconomic characteristics of the population that affect each of the demographic parameters of any given society." (Hameuchad, 1995) The population growth rate remained close to 3. 5% and it makes Yemen the fastest growing country in the region. "Yemen's estimated population of 20m is projected to grow to 70m by 2050." (Oxford Business Group, 2008) Yemen: Economic and Demographic Indicators. 2006-11 Population Population Growth % GDP At current prices GDP Per capita (at PPP) Average household size Labor force Unemployment Rate % 2006 21,622,000 3.08 19,106 884 710 7,287,212 26.2 2007 22,290,000 3.09 21,664 972 710 7,578,593 27.7 2008 22,978,000 3.09 25,863 1,126 710 7,881,885 29.9 2009 23,678,000 3.09 31,577 1,333 710 8,197,253 27.3 2010 24,398,000 3.00 34,261 1,404 710 8,349,000 27.1 2011 25130,000 3.00 35,511 1,453 710 10,612,036 27.1 Source :(Oxford Business Group, 2008) Indicators 2008 1995 2005 2015 2025 Population Midyear population (in thousands) 23,013 14,864 20,745 29,193 39,696 Growth rate (percent) 3.5 3.0 3.5 3.3 2.8 Fertility Total fertility rate (births per woman) 6.4 7.4 6.7 5.8 4.7 Crude birth rate (per 1,000 population)

International marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

International marketing - Essay Example companies, in particular, are increasingly going global to ease competition pressure in the domestic market and to explore new market opportunities for growth. Pig meat is one of the agricultural products that are produced in large quantities in the U.K. Statistics show that the production of pig meat has been increasing every year in the country. Unfortunately, the production appears to outweigh the demand available considering that a section of the U.K. citizens does not eat pork because of cultural issues. Accordingly, the low demand for pig meat has been affecting most farmers negatively because it results in losses for farmers as they are forced to lower their prices because of the low demand. In March 2015, the U.K pig meat production totaled 69,300 tons, accounting for about 5% increase compared to the same March 2014 (Pig World 2015). The high production of pig meat experienced in recent months has resulted in a huge drop in prices. Therefore, the best way to save the U.K. pig farmers is perhaps to look for new market opportunities in the global market where the demand for pig meat is high. China will be the right target market for the U.K. surplus pig meat. This is because of the high demand for pork in China. Studies show that China is the worlds leading consumer of pork, which accounts for more than three-quarter of the meat consumed in the country. Currently, each Chinese consume an average of 84 pounds of pork every year (Hoffman 2014). The high consumption of pork is attributed to the fact that pork is the meat of choice among Chinese people. In fact, pork consumption in China is projected to reach more than 70 million tons by 2017(Larsen 2012). Accordingly, this makes China a lucrative market for expansion for U.K. pig farmers. Considering that China is also the most populous county in the world with more than 1.3 billion people, who eat pork, this is certainly a lucrative pork market that must be exploited by the U.K. pig meat producers who

Mills Argument on the Freedom and Equality of Women Essay

Mills Argument on the Freedom and Equality of Women - Essay Example Consequently, Mill disagrees with an arrangement where one partner in a marriage appears to dominate the other. In this regard, he proposes a marriage relationship that is guided by consensus building and free association for both partners. However, while, men may have difficulties tolerating the idea of living as equal partners with their female counterparts, Mill reiterates that equality between men and women is highly desirable. As such, liberating women from patriarchal culture presents a bright future for mankind (Smith, 2001). On the other hand, freedom and equality also entails allowing women to own property and participate in politics. Mill also considers women to have similar abilities to men; however, due to their thought process and experience, women tend to be morally superior to men. In essence, freedom and equality of women in civil society benefits the general welfare of society in terms of promoting, for instance, justice, liberty and moral sensitivity. Strength and limitations of Mill’s approach Mill’s focus on the freedom and equality of women in civil society serves to promote affirmative action. Further his approach to the issue also dissuades the society from viewing women as an inferior gender to their male counterparts. Mill also identifies patriarchal culture as an impediment to gender equality in the society. On the other hand, the limitation of Mill’s approach with regard to freedom and equality of women in civil society emanates from a lack of focus on the needs and interests of women.

Complaints Against an Attorney Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Complaints Against an Attorney - Essay Example The subchapter 8.100 of the Michigan Court rules clearly states some rules that regulate the conduct of attorneys. In addition, the Michigan Supreme Court occasionally produces administrative orders, which can have the same effect of the Michigan Court Rules governing attorney practices. (Michigan legal ethics). Michigan attorneys are accountable for their misconducts regardless of whether or not they are occurred in the course of an attorney-client relationship. According to the section 0.2:240 of the Michigan Rules of Professional Conduct, misconduct can be referred to as â€Å"conduct prejudicial to the proper administration of justice† or â€Å"conduct that exposes the legal profession or the courts to obloquy contempt, censure or reproach† (Michigan legal ethics). An individual can file a complaint against the attorney if the individual truly believes that the attorney’s conduct was against justice, professional ethics, honesty and good morals. If the attorney’s conduct does not meet the Standards of Professional Responsibility set by the Supreme Court, he will be found guilty. An individual can file a Request for Investigation if the attorney’s conduct is contrary to US’ or any of its states’ criminal law. An attorney will be found accountable for his misconduct if he intentionally misrepresents any fact or circumstance. In short, an individual can file a Request for Investigation against an attorney if the complainant really believes that the conduct of the attorney was against his professional ethics. Anyone can file a complaint against an attorney licensed by the State Bar of Michigan or permitted by an authoritative court by filling and signing the Request for Investigation form of AGC. In addition, the complaint can also be filed by sending in a signed letter. According to the Attorney Grievance Commission, â€Å"The form or letter must be signed and sufficiently describe the alleged

Final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 12

Final - Essay Example In particular, â€Å"Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close† by Jonathan Safran Foer appears to be the fusion of text and visual aids. As it is a literary work, text plays the leading role in rendering the ideas, while visual aids perform the supporting role and enhance the story telling by means of specifying and illustrating the narration. In accordance with McCloud, text and pictures interrelate in several ways in a piece. Despite the fact that McCloud discusses mostly graphic novels, or comics, his ideas can be applied to the novel under consideration as well. Based on McCloud’s work titled â€Å"Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art†, there are two types of text and photo combinations in â€Å"Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close†, such as word specific combination and additive combination. The first type of text and photo combination presupposes that pictures mostly illustrate what is discussed in the novel. One of the best examples of the use of photos in terms of illustrations is Oskar’s visit to the art supply store where the boy sees his father’s name (actually his grandfather’s name) written on the writing pads. The photos of writing pads are placed in the novel to illustrate that â€Å"most people write the name of the color of the pen they’re writing withâ €  and back up the manager’s words (Foer). Apart from that, these photos reveal no information. The second example is Oskar’s scrap book â€Å"Stuff That Happened to Me†. For the boy, the book is of great importance for it bears valuable memories. Put exactly in this part of the novel, however, the scrap book can be regarded as the illustration of what is happening in Oskar’s head at a particular moment in bed at night. â€Å"Stuff That Happened to Me† is the montage of photos (keys, Oskar’s fingerprints, Hamlet holding Yorick’s skull etc.) which reflects the welter of confused ideas and the boy’s state of perplexity at that very moment. The

Turbochargers to be used in commercial two wheelers Essay - 1

Turbochargers to be used in commercial two wheelers - Essay Example The first turbocharger was invented in the early 20th century by the ‘Swiss engineer Alfred Buchi’ who introduced a prototype in order to increase the power of a diesel engine. At the initial stage, turbocharger was meant to be used on airplanes which could use thinner air and fly at higher altitudes and to be used to deliver ample power for stable flight. In the engineering world turbochargers was in much attention as World War I brought the increased need for the aviation technology. The concept of turbocharging in those days was very little accepted. But, in the last few years, turbocharging has been a vital product in almost every diesel engine, with an exception being very small diesel engines. Turbochargers use in the petrol engines have also shown good boost for the power output. The first turbochargers were applicable limited to large engines such as marine engine. In the automobile industry turbocharging was firstly implemented into truck engines. In 1938, ‘Swiss Machine Works Saurer’ built turbocharged engine for trucks. In 1962, the Chevrolet Corvair Monza was the first turbo powered engine car which was introduced in United States. Poor efficiency and reliability made them to disappear from the market. In 1973, after the oil crisis step in, turbocharging was again found be acceptable in the diesel engine applications resulting an increase in the turbocharged truck engines. As a result today every engine of the truck is turbocharged. After few years, turbochargers were introduced in the motor sports mainly into Formula 1 racing. The word ‘turbo’ started to become quite popular. In those days, almost every manufacturer of automobiles implemented turbocharging in at least one of their top model with a turbocharged petrol engines. Although this engines were very powerful it still did not made an impression to take a further step because of the more fuel consumption and more importantly the delayed response named as ‘turbo lag’ was

Culture and Communication Essay Example for Free

Culture and Communication Essay The above figures show how different populations are spread in different countries all over the world. It implies that whenever we visit one country, we have to talk in a language that we shall be able to break communication barrier with our hosts. However, it has not been easy to break the cultural barrier between different communities. This is despite the fact that culture has appeared to be dynamic and changing with especially the changing technology. It has thus to be understood that cultural barrier is more than language barrier and if not carefully handled, the cultural barrier can provoke reactions that are negative and cause emotional reactions to the parties involved (Novinger, 2008). We need to understand that whatever that is taken to be of good behavior in one culture might actually be rudeness to others’ culture. You might also get that in one culture, there are issues that are very sensitive, but in actually sense, you don’t see them to be of any consequence in your own culture. This means that we need to understand the culture of the people we are in frequent communication with, so that we can speak the same culture rather than just speaking the same language (Gerry Wilson, n. d). It is important to note that although there are various reservations given about the world of communication, there is need for having some good communication so that we carry on our culture, or else, the chances of such culture surviving might be minimal. Effect of culture on communication It is very difficult to discover the cultural inclination that is involved in communication by one person of a different culture to another. â€Å"The extend to which culture affects communication between people from different cultural groups is a function of the dissimilarity between the cultures, rules, or self concepts,† (Cushman Cahn, 1984 pp 136). Culture is an important socialization aspect that can influence how we relate to other people and objects around us. The different in communication among people from different cultures comes from the uniqueness of the socialization process each has undergone. â€Å"Communication specialists estimate that some two-thirds to three-fourths of our communication take place nonverbally through behavior. Behavior itself is learned from our culture and all behavior communicates,† (Novinger, 2008 para 2). It is not possible to stop one from behaving in a certain way, and yet it is not possible to stop communicating. This means that at all time, we are constantly communicating in a behavior instilled in us by our culture. It is a common phenomenon for us to assume that our culture naturally shows how we are supposed to do things. In this aspect, we tend to look down upon other cultures as being less evolved. One might meet a person from one culture which might make them feel irritated by the fact that such a person might not be cooperative or might appear to be rude. It causes a lot of frustration when you find that a person you are having a conversation with is actually not getting what you are trying to put across. This might appear to you to be very simple, yet to the other partner, it is something that is complicated and new. It mostly depends on how the other party perceives issues altogether which might be completely different from your line of view. In this case, unless you see how the other person is perceiving the same information you are looking at, it will be very difficult to have a meaningful communication (LeBaron, 2003). In most instances, we have also assumed that our actions are governed by the free will. This is however not true since our culture is concerned with imposing certain rules unto us on the way we need to behave immediately we are born. Some common things that are leant at a tender age are when to talk and when not to talk, the gestures that are acceptable and the ones that are not, and we do also learn several table manners. In general, we learn on how to communicate with people in a manner that is totally acceptable to our culture. As Novinger (2008) argues, these communicative behaviors have some consequences, because as this â€Å"behavior is learned so well, it sinks to a subconscious level, so that when we interact with others, we operate on a sort of automatic pilot,† (para 4). While communicating to another person, it is rare to take note of whatever comes up during the communication which we consider to be normal. It is only the behavior that deviates from our cultural way of behaving that usually captures our attention much. In most instances, we take offence when such cases arise. We thus need to understand that the different way we perceive things from one culture does not necessarily mean that the other culture has a defect because of the perception they have on the same issue (Hauben, 1996). For instance, â€Å"Contrary to US culture, silence does not mean acceptance in other cultures,† (Sathyanarayan, n. d para 3). This means that there can appear some communication barrier in a meeting when one party has not understood anything and keeps quite. The other party may assume that by keeping quite, the other has fully understood what they were discussing, only to note that nothing has been put forward. This can be very frustrating especially if it is in a business entity and it might lead to a big loss to the business organization. In some instances, if the business or a project had a set deadline, a person will try to meet the deadline so as it does not appear like a case of disrespectful, yet in essence they are not sure of what is supposed to be done. This is usually common in relations that are still new. Another common cultural issue that can bring about communication barrier is that in some cultures, when in a meeting with high ranking officials, it is not good for members to give any contrary views. This means that despite the fact that a member might be having a certain pressing and important point but it is contrary to what the seniors are saying they might just keep quite. Therefore, a person from a different culture might be in problem understanding what is going on if they are in that kind of a meeting. In conclusions, we can say that it is easy to learn another person’s language to ease communication, but it is not enough, as there are a lot to be told by the culture which is usually portrayed in non verbal communication. Since culture is becoming very much dynamic, we can actually be able to learn the cultures of those we are constantly in touch with so that we can completely break the communication barrier. Reference: Cushman D P Cahn D. D (1984): Communication in Interpersonal Relationships ISBN: 0873959094; SUNY Press Gerry Wilson E (n. d): Communication and Culture, retrieved on 18th June 2008 from http://jmm. aaa. net. au/articles/85. htm Hauben M (1996): Culture and Communication, retrieved on 18th June 2008 from http://www. columbia. edu/~hauben/CS/usenet-culture. txt LeBaron M (2003): Culture and Conflict, retrieved on 18th June 2008 from http://www. beyondintractability. org/essay/culture_conflict/ Sathyanarayan M. M (n. d): Managing Offshore Projects: How Culture Affects Communications and Deliverables, retrieved on 18th June 2008 from http://www. offshoringsuccess. com/offshore_hcacd. html The University of the South Pacific Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (n. d): Sample ELSE Test Questions, retrieved on 18th June 2008 from http://www. usp. ac. fj/fileadmin/files/academic/students/elsa_sample. pdf

History Of Persuasion Rhetoric English Language Essay

History Of Persuasion Rhetoric English Language Essay Rhetoric, the study of how human beings use symbols to communicate( Foss, Foss, Trapp, 2002), is one of the oldest concepts of human communication in the Western World which dates back to the fifth century B.C( Baldwin, Perry, Moffitt,2004). This field of study marked the advent of speech communication. A pivotal concept studied in the field of rhetoric is Persuasion. Such is the prominence of this particular phenomenon in this discipline that, in present times, the study of rhetoric is generally considered synchronous to the study of persuasive communication.( Baldwin et al, 2004). Persuasion stems from the three cultures which make up the classical rhetorical theory. It all started with the sophists, a body of Greek teachers, who wrote handbooks which defined methods of producing and delivering persuasive messages. The act of sophists charging money for their services and their strong criticism by Plato perpetuated an antisophistic sentiment which lead to their subsequent demise. By this time ( 428 -348 B.C) Plato had come to the forefront and professed the necessity of finding the absolute truth( Baldwin et al, 2004). Platos student Aristotle constructed a philosophy which drew from the ideologies advocated by the sophists as well as Plato, providing a sort of middle ground between completely relative to absolute unvarying truth.( Baldwin et al, 2004, pg 78). In his masterpiece The Rhetoric, Aristotle speaks of the three essential elements of an effective persuasive speech: ethos, pathos and logos. Ethos is the moral character of the speaker, pathos is taking into consideration the feelings of the audience members and logos is the accuracy of logic and argument in the speech.( OHair , Wiemann,2009). The current literature review primarily focuses on the role of pathos in persuasive messages. But before progressing in that direction, the most fundamental question which needs to be addressed is : What is persuasion? Persuasion and Interpersonal Influence Persuasion, at its very core, is an attempt to influence without direct coercion ( Dillard, Pfau, 2002). Daniel OKeefe in his book Persuasion: Theory and Research smartly pointed out that success is considered to be ingrained in the concept of persuasion. To make a claim that I was persuaded means that the attempt of influence was indeed successful. This influence attempt can either be to bring in a complete change in attitude and beliefs which is inclusive of emotions and behavior of another person or to just preserve this attitudinal change. (Dillard et al 2002). The early research work conducted on persuasion has primarily been with respect to a large audience setup ( Miller 1987). However, with the realization that almost 80 % of the influence attempts occur in close relationships( Dillard,Knobloch, 2002) the focus on research work has steered towards interpersonal influence which, as the name suggests, focuses on the persuasive message production and effects( dillard , knobloch , 2002) in interpersonal relationships. One of the main differences which crops up between the study of rhetoric and the study of persuasion theories is the fact that research on rhetoric is primarily humanistic while persuasion takes a more social scientific bend trying to explicate the variables which enhance or inhibit the probability of success of a persuasive message (Baldwin et al 2002). Affect, Emotion, Mood and Feelings : Same or different? Some researchers use the terms affect emotion and mood interchangeably, but these terms need to be delineated for a better understanding of each of their roles in persuasive communication( Guerrero, Anderson , Trost, 1998). Affect refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. Emotions are considered to be internal and have a primary focus on affect. Moods are longer lasting feelings (which are not as concrete and specific as emotions ( Clore, Shwartz,Conway, 1994 ; Frijda,1986 in Jorgenson,1998). A more detailed description of the terms are accounted for below. Affect Definition: Origin: There have been two contesting views on the source of affect. Studies conducted by Dillard and Wilson(1993) explicated the message irrelevant affect where the affect itself bears no logical relationship to the content of the message , it has nothing to do with the message whatsoever ( Dillard, Pfau,2002). This type of affect takes into account the emotional state existing prior to the reception of a persuasive message which has a significant impact on the message processing by an individual(Anderson, Guerrero,1998). The other view on the source of affect, the message induced affect (Dillard, Wilson, 1993) is one where affect is considered a part and parcel of the message evaluation, when messages are designed in a way to evoke certain emotions and feelings which serve as the basis of acceptance of the advocacy(Dillard, Pfau,2002). Dillard and Wilson(1993) refer to it as direct effect as the emotion occurs in direct response to a given message(Jorgenson,1998, pg.406). Structure of Affect Dillard and Meijenders(2002) accounted for three models of affect on which I am going to focus on as well. The first model is the Bipolar Valence Model. According to this model, affect should be structured as a single continuum with positive affect on one end of the spectrum and negative affect on the other. This model suggests how the pre-existing affective states have a considerable effect on how the receiver processes the message. The mood as information hypothesis in this regard states that positive mood or affective state of a receiver encourages heuristic message processing while negative moods elicit cognitive processing. Mood management hypothesis( Wegener and Petty,1996) was formulated as a challenge to the mood as information hypothesis which states that information processing depends on the affective state of the receiver in a different way. If the receiver feels that elaborative processing of a positive message can enhance his mood, he will indulge in it. The second model is the Two Dimensional Model. Dillard and Meijnders(2002) account for two types of two dimensional models. One model has pleasure as one dimension and arousal as the second one. The conceptual allure of this circumplex is its ability to explain affective experience as blends of pleasure and arousal (Reisenzein, 1994 in Dillard, Meijnders 2002). Empirical evidence shows that increased arousal inhibits systematic processing of messages. The second model in this category has two systems as the two dimensions. One of them, the behavioral approach system, facilitates goal directed behavior. The other one, behavioral inhibition system discourages behavior which may lead to undesired negative results.(Davidson,1993 ;Gray,1990 in Dillard, Meijnders, 2002, pg 316). The third and final model named the Discrete Emotion Model distinguished emotions from one another on the grounds that they are characterized by varied systemic changes( Dillard and Meijenders,2002). The main function of this model is to elicit the fact that each emotion has distinct effects on a variety of persuasive outcomes.( Dillard and Meijenders, 2002). Information Processing Models After the persuasive message has been disseminated, the audience member processes the information in different ways depending on factors such as the message features and audience members emotional and affective state. Different models of information processing are formulated based on these caharacteristics. Message Relevant Models : Elaboration Likelihood Model as well as Heuristic Systematic Processing ( as a dual process model as) postulate two distinct modes of message analysis. The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion is an approach developed by Richard Petty,John Caciaoppo and their associates(1986a,1986b) which postulates that there can be two different routes to persuasion depending on the extent to which the argument is elaborated, by the central route or by the peripheral route( Anderson, Guerrero,1998). The central route is when the receiver of the message weighs the argumentative quality of the message and processes the message using sound logic and reason whereas peripheral route is when the receiver of the message uses cues such as mood(Anderson, Guerrero,1998) to react to the persuasive message. When the receivers motivation is low and he is unable to judge the cognitive aspects of the message, i.e., he performs low elaboration of the message, the receiver is then generally guided by simpler heuristic principles such as credibility, liking, and consensus (O Keefe, 2002). On the other hand, during extensive elaboration, the content of the mes sage takes predominance over the peripheral cues. Jorgensen(2002) argues that emotional appeals are more effective as persuasive tools during low elaboration and even brings about attitude change in the receiver, however such attitude change is more fleeting than those brought about by the central route processing.(authors, pg409). The Heuristic Systematic Processing model is also used to explain the message processing methods used by receivers of persuasive messages. According to this model, there are two ways by which a receiver will judge a message, either by Systematic processing or by Heuristic Processing. Dillard and Peck ( 2000) in their article on evaluation of Public Service announcements succinctly describe both approaches in this model with reference to how the audience perceives the persuasive health campaign messages. They state that systematic processing is contemplative analytic and responsive to the argumentative quality of the message while heuristic processing involves the usage of shortcut decision making rules called heuristics to make a faster decision. Many researchers have stated that affect serves as the basis of the heuristics in heuristic reasoning. Emotion is, perhaps, the psychological heuristic key to human survival( pg 735, persuasion handbook). WHEN ARE THE TWO USED? Appraisal Theory : The appraisal theory explains the simple causal sequence through which emotions arise in the following steps : the message is produced by the speaker, perceived by the hearer and then appraised by the hearer. The receiver makes a judgment call by appraising the message against the dimension of the resultant personal harm or benefit and depending upon the extent of the judgment, an emotion arises( iv). In a nutshell, this theory suggests that a message may engender emotions as a result of the receivers judgment or not evoke any emotions all together. Appraisal Pattern: Message Irrelevant Models Effect of Mood on Persuasion More than models, three hypotheses govern the explanation of how mood has a substantial effect on message processing. We have already discussed how the elaboration of a message affects the message processing by the receiver. Now, we shift our attention to the reasons behind the differing elaboration of the message by the receiver. As suggested by Blumenthal () , the mood regulation hypothesis states that cognitive information processing of a persuasive message is influenced by the receivers mood. If the receiver is in a positive mood , he is motivated to steer away from a deep analysis of the message for it might take him out of that good mood. Similarly , if someone is in a negative mood, he is more likely to evaluate the incoming stimuli more carefully. Thus positive mood involves heuristic cognitive processing of a communication message and negative mood is synchronous with the in depth systematic processing of the message. The motivational hypothesis also has a similar line of belief. It states that the use of peripheral or systematic processing to evaluate a message depends upon the mood of the receiver; if the person is in a certain mood, he might be predisposed to choose a certain method of message processing over another. For example the research conducted by Isen(1991) suggests that people in a good emotional state are more inclined towards low elaboration of a message as they just want to hold on to their positive mood( handbook). On the other hand, people in bad moods tend to be in a threatened mentality where in they want to judge every message carefully to be sure to not make costly judgments about the state of the world( Jorgensen). The motivational hypothesis also sheds light on the way the argumentative quality of the message is perceived in different emotional states. Recipients of strong arguments should be more persuaded when they are in a bad mood and conversely, recipients of weak argu ments should be more persuaded when they are in a good mood. This shows that the mood plays an instrumental role in deciding the acceptance of the message as well as its argumentative quality. The cognitive capacity hypothesis can be considered as an extension of the motivational hypothesis as together with asserting that affective states do influence the information processing capacity of the receiver it also states that these affective states may also interfere with the information processing. However it fails to state which affective state acts as the hindrance because under different circumstances different affective states can become the hindrance. This claim is elucidated by Dillard and Nabi(2006) when they posited that different emotional states can enhance or inhibit persuasive success and that under different circumstances the same emotional states may inhibit or enhance persuasive processes. Understanding that emotional appeals play an important and legitimate role in the process of persuasion is an important first step for communication researchers. Emotions: Emotion plays a major role in various forms of persuasive communication, from politics to health communication to advertisements. Aristotle stated that persuasion is accomplished by the interplay of three forms of rhetorical proof( real communication ph 461), ethos which reflects the speakers trustworthiness and moral character; logos which stands for a well reasoned and structured argument and finally pathos which denotes the audiences feelings. Even though everyday attempts of persuasion depend heavily on emotional appeals, emotion is the one variable which has had very little inquiry. There can be many reasons for this discrepancy. One of them could be the over emphasis of logic over emotion, researchers have always treated logic as a superior dimension in the construction of persuasive messages(Jergenson,1998). On the other hand Seibold, Cantrill and Meyers(1985 p559) point out that most of the times emotion is taken for granted. Since emotion is so effortlessly incorporated in most of our day to day persuasive messages that researchers just assume its effectiveness in the persuasive process rather than tes ting its operation( vi). Jorgensen(1998) posits the two competing notions of studying emotions: one of them states that emotion is not an integral part of the persuasion process rather it is a offshoot of the communicative process. In this view, emotions are looked upon as inherent states of the receiver, ones which do not have any direct relation with the persuasive message. The other view suggests that emotions are an integral part of the persuasive messages and emotional appeals are explicitly used to bring in attitude change thus accomplishing the primary goal of the persuasive process. Affect, Emotion, Feeling and Mood Affect refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. Emotions are considered to be internal and have a primary focus on affect. Together with this, emotions are also thought to be specific, focused and foregrounded in consciousness.(v) . The concept of emotion becomes clearer when seen in comparison with mood. Unlike emotion, moods are considered to be longer lasting feelings which may not be about anything specific. Instances like I am happy because I feel good , which do not have any sound and concrete reasons backing up the resulting emotion are considered to be moods. Moods are also not characterized by a specific outcome stimuli and even though mood seems to be something which is fleeting and diffusive, it does have serious effects on message information processing. (Geurrero, Andersen, troust,1998). Before we delve into that part of research, we will look a bit more in details on emotion. There are three ways in which emotions can be conceptualized : the discrete emotions approach, the prototype approach and the dimensional approach. The discrete emotion approach pivots around a central claim, emotions guide behavior(handbook of persuasion pg 318). As the name suggests, this approach considers each emotion to be discrete and also postulates that each emotion supplies a unique information manifesting distinct patterns of cognitive change( handbook). This means that if each emotion has a distinct pattern of behavioral change, then these emotions should also elicit distinct effects of persuasion. In the dimensional approach, emotions are categorized according to different dimensions like valence, activity and intensity. The prototype approach offers a middle ground position between discrete emotional approach and dimensional approach by categorizing emotions by a number of characteristics like valence, functions and expressions( pg 19 , guerrero, Anderson and trost). Emotional Appeal and Emotional Arousal: The meaning of appeal is to request for change. Emotional appeal is hence an appeal through emotions. Considering that emotional appeals are profusely implemented in everyday persuasive attempts, the limited attention and research on emotionality is astounding. There can be many reasons for this neglect. One of them could be the over emphasis of logic over emotion, researchers have always treated logic as a superior dimension in the construction of persuasive messages(Jergenson,1998). On the other hand Seibold, Cantrill and Meyers(1985 p559) point out that most of the times emotion is taken for granted. Since emotion is so effortlessly incorporated in most of our day to day persuasive messages that researchers just assume its effectiveness in the persuasive process rather than testing its operation( vi). Dillard and Wilson(1993) claim until the 1960s, research on emotions was negated by many of the social sciences on the grounds of it not being in accordance with the theory of logica l positivism. Although the recognition of the importance of emotion from a communication perspective( Jorgenson,1998) gained prominence in the 1980s.(Dillard and Wilson 1993). Through research it was realized that the effectiveness of persuasive messages in highly enhanced when the message incorporates both flawless logic as well as the effective arousal of the receivers emotions.(Arnold,1985). Emotional persuasion is this the method by which the message receiver is persuaded through the arousal of emotion or through appeal to expected emotion. Sometimes the message producers include emotional appeals in the messages, intending to arouse a certain sort of emotion in the receiver which would increase the effectiveness of the persuasive message. However, the interpretation of the message by the audience member may have three possibilities; after the receiver appraises the message, the intended emotion will be invoked in him; multiple emotions are invoked in the receiver or no emotions are evoked altogether. Thus the study of emotional appeals has been done by a trial and error method ( Jorgenson, 1998) and also challenges the principle of the CFM model(Nabi,1999) to an extent. The cfm model states that the message producers should firstly decide which emotion they want to evoke to achieve their persuasive goals and then construct the message in a way to reflect the core relational theme or the crux of that emotion. This model points out one of the processes of emotional arousal. Another generic way of arousing emotions is by incorporating a novel stimuli in the message. It has been observed that often times prior knowledge may inhibit emotional arousal(iii). There are certain emotional appeals which evoke negative emotions in the audience member for example fear appeals in specific health campaign messages. In such messages, when the emotional arousal is followed up with effective and feasible ways to overcome the fear, this strategy is very effective in increasing the persuasiveness of the message. For example, when a commercial on AIDS elicits fear in the audience member, the next step should be to also inform the audience member about safe sex, the usage of condoms and other preventive measures which reassures the audience member as well. Walton(1992) states that many a times emotional appeals in messages are either irrelevant, i.e. , it is not pertinent to the message being conveyed or they are used as tools to camouflage the weakness of an argument being presented to inappropriately influence the listener(vi). Thus, even though it is the receivers perception of the emotion induced message which guides his attitude and the subsequent action, the receiver should be careful of the way in which he reaches his conclusion about the persuasive message. Thus from the above observations it can be summarized that the efficacy of a persuasive message from the stand point of a receiver can be measured in three parameters : the credibility of the source , the effective emotional arousal by the message and finally the provision of feasible measures to cater to the emotion( vi). Structure of Affect and Future Research :

effects of cancer Essay -- essays research papers

Cancer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this paper I’m going to enlighten the reader on the struggles and hardships that people have living and maintaining with cancer. The stress that cancer causes is enough to change the emotional balance of ones environment. Physical pain is a factor that causes a person with cancer to do not want their life to continue. Some more factors that people deal with while assessing cancer are emotional pain, treatment, expenses, and just learning to how to cope with cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cancer is a sickness that interferes with a person’s life and changes their daily schedule and also effect’s his or her families regular activities. Cancer strikes one out of every three people, almost every family will hear that dreaded word in a personal way. â€Å"Pain is one of the most commonly feared symptoms of cancer † said David Matachar, MD, director of the Duke University Center for Clinical Health Policy Research and senior author of the paper. This section of the paper gives readers a personal experience with a person who has cancer. To understand the physical and emotional pain of cancer I interviewed a close friend of mine and asked her to explain the emotional and physical pains of having cancer. She started off saying that â€Å"once she found out that she had cancer so many thoughts rushed threw her head.† She wondered first is she would loose her hair or not. Then by having cancer would people treat her a certain way just because she has cancer when they found out. Would she be able to continue her everyday activities. Could she one day have children and in fact pass it on unto them. She thought that she was going to die as is if she was on a time clock. Secondly she felt that she would be on her own without help, without someone she could depend on. The physical pains she endured was the sickness she felt after chemotherapy and radiation. The soreness she felt after surgery from being cut open and sown back together. Feeling of tiredness during the day was a pain for her when she knew that there was things still to be done. Pain from the daily exercise workouts she had been instructed to do. To maintain a certain level of healthiness. Certain times of the day were her body wanted to shut down but she forced it to carry on. The taking of so many pills a day caused her to be drowsy and restless. She saidâ€Å" she knew ... ...t by non-specialty providers. Pain management by oncologists was slightly more effective, but still managed the pain of only 55% of patients. By the Cancer Weekly editors from staff and other reports.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The struggles and hardships that people endure while living with cancer could stress someone out to where they could forget about their self-worth. In my opinion physical pain and emotional pain are two of the biggest factors when trying to cope with having cancer. As far as physical pain goes your body becomes so weak at times to where your almost helpless. Emotional pain could eat a person up on the inside to where they would think negative all the time, make it to were they wouldn’t want help or push themselves away from those family member that are trying to help them. The self-drive one should have would be erased and could lead to other medical problems. Once a person looses the will power to take charge and go out there on there own to make things right or better it makes it hard for them to and maintain cancer and it’s many obstacles. It also blocks their ability to intake knowledge to prevent or maintain themselves throughout the process.

Enhanced British Parliamentary Papers on Ireland, 1801-1922 :: Government Politics Political Essays

Enhanced British Parliamentary Papers on Ireland, 1801-1922 The British Parliamentary Papers on Ireland (BPPI) are an indispensable primary source for virtually every historian (and many non-historians) working in most fields of Irish history, and the history of Anglo-Irish relations, during the period of the Union (1801-1922). We have identified some 13,700 official publications relating to Ireland from the House of Commons[1] Sessional Indexes for this period, ranging in scale from short bills of a few pages and reports, to the massive social inquiries with volumes of minutes of evidence exemplified by the decennial censuses, the Poor Inquiry Commission (1836) and Devon Commission (1845) reports, each of which were multi-volume documents covering thousands of pages. Subjects covered by BPPI range from government, politics and administration, to finance, agriculture and industry, communications, emigration, social conditions, poor relief and health, population, law and order, education, cultural institutions, religion and language. The types of evidence contained are extremely varied, from statistical series and accounts to lightly- or unedited transcripts of emigrants’ letters and witness interviews from across the social spectrum. Obviously the BPPI are elite documents, created by the Government, Parliament and state agencies for the purposes of governance, administration, and the creation of official knowledge. This naturally implies an official bias in what was thought relevant of observation, what data was collected, and what was selected for publication. The principal value of the BPPI might thus be taken to lie in what they tell us about governing knowledge, preoccupations, strategies and ideologies – all crucial in themselves for an understanding of the British-Irish relationship in the period between the Act of Union and the Irish Revolution and the partition of the island in 1919-22. But the BPPI can also provide us with much more than the ‘official view’. British governance of Ireland took place in the context of executive responsibility to Parliament, a body which contained growing numbers of oppositional and nationalist Irish members who could demand returns of official data and serve on committees and commissions of inquiry, and beyond Parliament (however imperfectly) to an Irish as well as a British public opinion, increasingly conscious through the burgeoning popular press of the proceedings of Parliament. Irish newspapers, for example, carried not only verbatim accounts of parliamentary debates, but long extracts from the BPPI, and debated their findings and implications in editorials. The BPPI were very much part of the public life of 19th and early 20th-century Ireland.

Interview With a Flight Nurse Essay -- Interview Essays

In the current era of nursing, it is easy to get caught up in the hustle and bustle of the job. It may be easy some days to forget about the basic driving forces that brought us to the bedside years ago. In order to get back to the grass roots of practice, I interviewed a flight nurse of Air Medical, John Rhodes, a bachelor’s prepared nurse from State University, Alumni 1990. Following the interview, I observed him giving direct care to a couple of patients during flight. By doing the stated tasks, I was able to unveil the theories for which one member of our nursing community lives out. The daily configuration of the helicopter bedside includes two flight nurses or one flight nurse and a flight paramedic to provide patient care. Due to this, I have had worked alongside Flight Nurse (FN) Rhodes for two years at an intimate level. Even though he may think that he does not follow the ideals of nursing, he is an exemplary example. â€Å"I learned nursing theories over thirty years ago. I don’t think I use any of them† (M. Rhodes, personal communication, August 13, 2011). When I asked FN Rhodes what informs him to care for patients he told me that â€Å"the patient, conscious or unconscious, tells us what to do for them with their assessment.† I found that FN Rhodes embodies the theory of Faye G. Abdellah who stresses â€Å"Patient-Centered Approaches to Nursing† (McEwen & Wills, 2011, p. 129). This is emphasized by the most important aspect of nursing care to John which is â€Å"doing the right or best thing for the patient, whatever that may be† (M. Rhodes, personal communication, August 13, 2011). Abdellah’s theory has identified twenty-one nursing problems and a list of ten items that nurses should include in th... ...ic facts and assumptions (p. 223). Through this, intuition is birthed; a skill that can only be abstractly generated from experience with real situations. It is obvious that FN Rhodes has engaged Benner’s: seven domains of nursing practice: helping role, teaching or coaching function, diagnostic client-monitoring function, effective management of rapidly changing situations, administering and monitoring therapeutic interventions and regimens, monitoring and ensuring quality of health care practices, and organizational and work-role competencies. (McEwen & Wills, 2011, p. 223) These two theories are only a small portion of what was witnessed and construed from the interviews and observations of FN John Rhodes. References McEwen, M. & Wills, E. M. (2011). Theoretical Basis for Nursing (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

Input/Output Organization

INPUT/OUTPUT ORGANIZATION †¢ Accessing I/O Devices †¢ I/O interface †¢ Input/output mechanism Memory-mapped I/O y pp / Programmed I/O Interrupts Direct Memory Access †¢ Buses Synchronous Bus Asynchronous Bus I/O in CO and O/S †¢ †¢ †¢ Programmed I/O Interrupts DMA (Direct memory Access) A bus is a shared communication link, which uses one , set of wires to connect multiple subsystems. The two major advantages of the bus organization are versatility and low cost. Accessing I/O Devices Most modern computers use single bus arrangement for connecting I/O devices to CPU & Memory †¢ The bus enables all the devices connected to it to exchange information †¢ Bus consists of 3 set of lines : Address, Data, Control †¢ Processor places a particular address (unique for an I/O Dev. ) on address lines †¢ Device which recognizes this address responds to the commands issued on the Control lines †¢ Processor requests for either Read / Write †¢ The data will be placed on Data lines Hardware to connect I/O devices to b t bus Interface Circuit – Address Decoder – Control Circuits – Data registers – Status registers †¢ The Registers in I/O Interface – buffer and control †¢ Flags in Status Registers like SIN, SOUT Registers, SIN †¢ Data Registers, like Data-IN, Data-OUT I/O interface for an input device Memory Address Processor Data Control Address Add Decoders Control C t l circuits Data d t t D t and status registers I/O /O Interface Input device (s) p ( ) Input Output mechanism h i †¢ Memory mapped I/O †¢ Programmed I/O †¢ Interrupts †¢ DMA (Direct memory Access)A bus generally contains a set of control lines and a set of data lines. The control lines are used to signal requests and acknowledgments, and to indicate what type of information is on the data lines. The control lines are used to indicate what the bus contains and to implement the bus p rotocol. The data lines of the bus carry information between the source and the destination. This information may consist of data, complex commands, or addresses. Buses are traditionally classified as processor-memory di i ll l ifi d buses or I/O buses or special purposed buses (Graphics, etc. ).Processor memory buses are short, generally high speed, and matched to the memory system so as to maximize memoryprocessor bandwidth. I/O b buses, b contrast, can be lengthy, can have many by t t b l th h types of devices connected to them, and often have a wide range in the data bandwidth of the devices connected to them. I/O buses do not typically interface directly to the memory but use either a processor-memory or a backplane bus to connect to memory. The major disadvantage of a bus is that it creates a communication bottleneck possibly limiting the maximum I/O bottleneck, throughput.When I/O must pass through a single bus, the bus bandwidth of that bus limits the maximum I/O throughput. Reason why b R h bus d i design is so difficult : i diffi lt – the maximum bus speed is largely limited by physical factors: the length of the bus and the number of devices. These physical limits prevent us from running the bus arbitrarily fast. – In addition, the need to support a range of devices with widely varying latencies and data transfer rates also makes bus design challenging. – it becomes difficult to run many parallel wires at high speed due to clock skew and reflection reflection.The two basic schemes for communication on the bus are synchronous and asynchronous. If a bus is synchronous (e. g. Processor-memory), it includes a clock in the control lines and a fixed protocol for communicating that is relative to the clock. g This type of protocol can be implemented easily in a small finite state machine. Because the protocol is predetermined and involves little logic, the bus can run very fast and the interface logic will be small. Synchronous buses h ave two major disadvantages: – First, every device on the bus must run at the same clock rate. Second, because of clock skew problems, synchronous buses cannot be long if they are fast. An A asynchronous b h bus i not clocked. It can accommodate a is t l k d d t wide variety of devices, and the bus can be lengthened without worrying about clock skew or synchronization problems. To coordinate the transmission of data between sender and receiver, an asynchronous bus uses a handshaking protocol. Three special control lines required for hand-shaking: ReadReq: Used to indicate a read request for memory. The address is put on the data lines at the same time.DataRdy: Used t i di t th t th d t D t Rd U d to indicate that the data word is now ready on the di d th data lines; asserted by: Output/Memory and Input/I_O Device. Ack: Used to acknowledge the ReadReq or the DataRdy signal of the other party. I/O Dev. Memory Steps after the device signals a request by raising ReadReq and putti ng the address on the Data lines: 1. When memory sees the ReadReq line, it reads the address from the data bus and raises Ack to indicate it has been seen. 2. As the Ack line is high – I/O releases the ReadReq and data lines. g / q 3.Memory sees that ReadReq is low and drops the Ack line to acknowledge the ReadReq signal (Mem. Reading in progress now). 4. This step starts when the memory has the data ready. It places the data from the read request on the data lines and raises DataRdy. 5. The I/O device sees DataRdy, reads the data from the bus, and signals that it has the data by raising Ack. 6. On the Ack signal, M/M drops DataRdy, and releases the data lines. 7. Finally, the I/O device, seeing DataRdy go low, drops the Ack line, which indicates that the transmission is completed. Memory mapped I/O I/O devices and the memory share the same address space the space, arrangement is called Memory-mapped I/O. In Memory-mapped I/O portions of address space are assigned to I/O devi ces and reads and writes to those addresses are interpreted as commands to the I/O device. †¢ â€Å"DATAIN† is the address of the input buffer associated with the keyboard. – Move DATAIN, R0 reads the data from DATAIN and stores them into processor register R0; – Move R0, DATAOUT sends the contents of register R0 to location DATAOUT g Option of special I/O address space or incorporate as a part of memory address space (address bus is same always).When the processor places the address and data on the memory bus, the memory system ignores the operation because the address indicates a portion of the memory space used for I/O. The device controller, however, sees the operation, records the data, and transmits it to the device as a command. User programs are p p g prevented from issuing I/O g / operations directly because the OS does not provide access to the address space assigned to the I/O devices and thus the addresses are protected by the address translatio n. Memory mapped I/O can also be used to transmit data by writing or reading to select addresses.The device uses the address to determine the type of command, and the data may be provided by a write or obtained by a read. A program request usually requires several separate I/O operations. Furthermore, the processor may have to interrogate the status of the device between individual commands to determine whether the command completed successfully. DATAIN DATAOUT STATUS CONTROL 7 6 5 4 DIRQ KIRQ DEN KEN SOUT SIN 3 2 1 0 I/O operation involving keyboard and display devices Registers: DATAIN, DATAOUT, STATUS, CONTROL Flags: SIN, SOUT – Provides status information for keyboard nd display unit KIRQ, DIRQ – Keyboard, Display Interrupt request bits DEN, KEN –Keyboard, Display Enable bits Programmed I/O †¢ CPU has direct control over I/O – S Sensing status i t t – Read/write commands – Transferring data †¢ CPU waits for I/O module to comple te operation †¢ Wastes CPU time In this case, use dedicated I/O instructions in the processor. These I/O instructions can specify both the device number and the command word (or the location of the command word in memory). The processor communicates the device address via a set of wires normally included as part of the I/O bus.The actual command can be transmitted over the data lines in the bus. bus (example – Intel IA-32) IA-32). By making the I/O instructions illegal to execute when not in kernel or supervisor mode user programs can be mode, prevented from accessing the devices directly. The process of periodically checking status bits to see if it is time for the next I/O operation, is called polling. Polling is the simplest way for an I/O device to communicate with the processor processor. The I/O device simply puts the information in a Status register, register and the processor must come and get the information.The processor is totally in control and does all the w ork. A ISA program to read one line from the keyboard, store it in memory buffer and echo it back to the display buffer, The disadvantage of polling is that it can waste a lot of processor time because processors are so much faster than I/O devices devices. The processor may read the Status register many times, only to find that the device has not yet completed a comparatively slow I/O operation, or that the mouse has not budged since the last time it was polled.When the device completes an operation, we must still read the status to determine whether it (I/O) was successful. Overhead in a polling interface lead to the invention of interrupts to notify the processor when an I/O device requires attention from the processor. Interrupt-driven I/O, Interrupt driven I/O employs I/O interrupts to indicate to the processor that an I/O device needs attention. When a device wants to notify the processor that it has completed some operation or needs attention, it causes the processor to be in terrupted.Interrupts I/O INTERRUPT Processor †¢ When I/O Device is ready, it sends the INTERRUPT signal to processor via a dedicated controller line †¢ Using interrupt we are ideally eliminating WAIT period †¢ In response to the interrupt, the processor executes the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) †¢ All the registers flags program counter values are saved registers, flags, by the processor before running ISR †¢ The time required to save status & restore contribute to execution overhead ? â€Å"Interrupt Latency† p y nterrupt-acknowledge signal – I/O device interface p y accomplishes this by execution of an instruction in the interrupt-service routine (ISR) that accesses a status or data register in the device interface; implicitly informs the device that its interrupt request has been recognized. IRQ signal is then removed by device. ISR is a sub-routine – may belong to a different user than the one being executed and then halted. The c ondition code flags and the contents of any registers used by both the interrupted program and the interrupt-service interrupt service routine are saved and restored restored.The concept of interrupts is used in operating systems and i many control applications, where processing of d in l li i h i f certain routines must be accurately timed relative to external events (e. g. real-time processing). Interrupt Hardware p Pull up Pull-up resister INTR = INTR1 +†¦.. +INTR n INTR An equivalent circuit for an open drain bus used to implement a open-drain common interrupt-request line Interrupt Hardware Supply pp y R INTR Processor Pull-up resister INTR 1 INTR 2 INTR 3 INTR = INTR1 +†¦.. +INTR n GND INTR Enabling and Disabling Interrupts Device activates interrupt signal line and waits with this signal activated until processors attends †¢ The interrupt signal line is active during execution of ISR and till the device caused interrupt is serviced †¢ Necessary to ensure t hat the active signal does not lead to successive interruptions (level-triggered input) causing (level triggered the system to fall in infinite loop. †¢ What if the same d i h h device i interrupts again, within an ISR ? i i hi †¢ Three methods of Controlling Interrupts (single device) – Ignoring interrupt – Disabling interrupts – Special Interrupt request line Ignoring Interrupts – Processor hardware ignores the interrupt request line until the execution of the first instruction of the ISR completed – Using an interrupt disable instruction after the first instruction of the ISR – no further interrupts – A return from interrupt instruction is completed before further interruptions can occur †¢ Disabling Interrupts – Processor automatically disables interrupts before starting the execution of the ISR – The processor saves the contents of PC and PS (status register) before performing interrupt disabling. The interrupt-enable is set to 0 – no further interrupts allowed – When return from interrupt instruction is executed the contents of the PS are restored from the stack, and the interrupt enable is set to 1 †¢ Special Interrupt line p p – Special interrupt request line for which the interrupt handling circuit responds only t th l di h dli i it d l to the leading edge of d f the signal – Edge –triggered g gg – Processor receives only one request regardless of how long the line is activated – N separate i t No t interrupt di bli t disabling i t instructions tiThe sequence of events involved in handling an interrupt request from a single device. Assuming that interrupts are enabled, the following is a typical scenario: 1. 1 The device raises an interrupt request request. 2. The processor interrupts the program currently being executed. t d 3. Interrupts are disabled by changing the control bits in the PS (except in the case of edge-tri ggered interrupts) interrupts). 4. The device is informed that its request has been recognized, and in response, it deactivates the interrupti d di d ti t th i t t request signal. . The action requested by the interrupt is performed by the interrupt-service routine. 6. Interrupts are enabled and execution of the interrupted program is resumed. Handling Multiple Devices †¢ Multiple devices can initiate interrupts p p †¢ They uses the common interrupt request line y p q †¢ Techniques are q – Polling – Vectored Interrupts p – Interrupt Nesting – Daisy Chaining y g Polling Scheme †¢ The IRQ (interrupt request) bit in the status register is set when a device is requesting an interrupt. The Interrupt service routine polls the I/O devices connected to the bus. †¢ The first device encountered with the IRQ bit set is serviced and the subroutine is invoked. †¢ Easy to implement, but too much time spent on checking the IRQ bits of all d evices, though some devices may not be requesting service. Vectored Interrupts †¢ Device requesting an interrupt identifies itself directly to the processor †¢ The device sends a special code to the processor over the bus. The code contains the – identification of the device device, – starting address for the ISR, – address of the branch to the ISR †¢ PC finds the ISR address from the code. †¢ To add flexibility for multiple devices – corresponding ISR is executed by the processor using a branch address to the appropriate routine – device specified Interrupt Vector. An interrupt vector is the memory address of an interrupt handler, or an index into an array called an interrupt vector table or dispatch table – a table of interrupt vectors (pointers to routines that handle interrupts).Interrupt vector tables contain the memory addresses of interrupt handlers. When an interrupt is generated, the processor saves its execution state via a context switch, and begins execution of the interrupt handler at the interrupt b i ti f th i t t h dl t th i t t vector. The Interrupt Descriptor Table ( p p (IDT) is specific to the ) p I386 architecture. It tells where the Interrupt Service Routines (ISR) are located. Each interrupt number is reserved for a specific purpose. For example, 16 of the vectors are reserved for the 16 IRQ lines.Q On PCs, the interrupt vector table (IVT or IDT) consists of 256 4-byte pointers – the first 32 (0-31 or 00-1F) of which are reserved f for processor exceptions; the rest f for hardware interrupts, software interrupts. This resides in the first 1 K of addressable memory. Interrupt Nesting †¢ Pre-Emption of low priority Interrupt by another high Pre Emption priority interrupt is known as Interrupt nesting. †¢ Di bli Disabling I t Interrupts d i t during th execution of th ISR the ti f the may not favor devices which need immediate attention. Need a priority of IRQ de vices and accepting IRQ from a high priority device. †¢ The priority level of the processor can be changed y y dynamically. †¢ The privileged instruction write in the PS (processor status word) that encodes the processors priority word), priority. Interrupt Nesting (contd. ) Pro ocessor INTR1 Device 1 INTA 1 Device 2 INTRp .. . Device p INTA p Priority arbitration circuit †¢ Organizing I/O devices in a prioritized structure. g g / p †¢ Each of the interrupt-request lines is assigned a different priority level level. †¢ The processor is interrupted only by a high priority device. Daisy Chaining †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The interrupt request line INTR is common to all the devices The interrupt acknowledgement line INTA is connected to devices in a DAISY CHAIN way INTA propagates serially through the devices Device that is electrically closest to the processor gets high hi h priority i i Low priority device may have a danger of STARVATION INTR P Processo r r Device D i 1 INTA Device D i 2 .. Device n D i Daisy Chaining with Priority Group †¢ †¢ Combining Daisy chaining and Interrupt nesting to form p priority group yg p Each group has different priority levels and within each group devices are connected in daisy chain wayINTR1 Proc cessor Device 1 Device 1 INTA 1 INTR p . . . . Device D i 1 INTA p Priority arbitration circuit Device D i 1 Arrangement of priority groups Direct Memory Access (DMA) †¢ For I/O transfer, Processor determines the status of I/O devices, by – – Polling Waiting for Interrupt signal †¢ Considerable overhead is incurred in above I/O transfer processing †¢ To transfer large blocks of data at high Speed, between EXTERNAL devices & Main Memory, DMA approach is often used †¢ DMA controller allows data transfer directly between I/O device d i and d Memory, M with i h minimal i l intervention i i of f processor. Direct Memory Access (DMA) †¢ DMA controller acts as a P rocessor, but it is controlled by CPU †¢ To initiate transfer of a block of words, the processor sends the following data to controller – The starting address of the memory block – The word count h d – Control to specify the mode of transfer such as read or write – A control to start the DMA transfer †¢ DMA controller performs the requested I/O operation and sends a interrupt to the processor upon completion 1 Status and Control Starting address Word count In ? ? ? IRQ 30 IE 1 R/W 0 Done DMA interface g g First register stores the starting address Second register stores Word count Third register contains status and control flags Bits and Flags R/W Done IRQ IE 1 READ Data transfer finishes Interrupt request Raise interrupt (enable) after Data Transfer 0 WRITE Processor Main memory Disk/DMA controller DMA controller Printer Keyboard Disk Disk Network Interface Use of DMA Controller in a computer system Memory accesses by the processor and DMA Cont roller are interwoven †¢ DMA devices have higher priority then processor over BUS control †¢ Cycle Stealing:- DMA Controller â€Å"steals† memory cycles from processor, though processor originates most memory access. †¢ Block or Burst mode:- The of data without interruption †¢ Conflicts in DMA: – Processor and DMA, – Two DMA controllers, try to use the Bus at the same time to access the main memory DMA controller may given exclusive access to the main memory to transfer a blockDMA and Interrupt Breakpoints During D i an I t Instruction Cycle ti C l Bus Arbitration †¢ Bus master: device that initiates data transfers on the bus. †¢ The next device can take control of the bus after the current master relinquishes control †¢ Bus Arbitration: process by which the next device to become master is selected †¢ Centralized and Distributed Arbitration BBSY P Processor r BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2 DMA controller 2 A simple arrangemen t for bus arbitration using a daisy chain BR (bus request ) line – open drain line – the signal on this line is a logical OR of the bus request from all the g q DMA devices – BG (bus grant) line – processor activates this line indicating (acknowledging) to all the DMA devices (connected in daisy chain fashion) that the BUS may be used when its free free. – BBSY (bus busy) line – open collector line – the current bus master i di b indicates d i devices that i i currently using h it is l i the bus by signaling this line BBSY Processor BR BG1 DMA controller 1 BG2DMA controller 2 Sequence of signals during data transfer of bus mastership †¢ Centralized Arbitration – Separate unit (bus arbitration circuitry) connected to the bus – Processor is normally the bus master, unless it grants bus mastership to DMA For the timing/control, in previous slide: DMA controller 2 requests and acquires bus mastership and later releases the bus. During its tenure as the bus master, it may perform one or more data transfer operations, depending on whether it is p , p g operating in the cycle stealing or block mode.After it releases the bus, the processor resumes bus mastership. †¢ Distributed Arbitration – All devices waiting to use the bus has to carry out the arbitration process – no central arbiter – Each device on the bus is assigned with a identification number 4-bit – One or more devices request the bus by asserting q y g the start-arbitration signal and place their identification number on the four open collector lines – ARB0 through ARB3 are the four open collector lines – One among the four is selected using the code on the lines and one with the highest ID numberA distributed arbitration scheme Assume that two devices, A and B, having ID numbers 5 and 6, respectively, are requesting the use of the bus. Device A transmits the pattern 0101, and device B transmit s the pattern 0110. p The code seen by both devices is 0111. Each device compares the pattern on the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting from the most significant bit. If it detects a difference at any bit position, it disables its drivers at that bit position and for all lower-order bits. It does so by placing a 0 at the input of these drivers drivers.In the case of our example, device A detects a difference on line ARB I. Hence, it disables its drivers on diff li I H i di bl i d i lines ARB 1 and ARBO. This causes the pattern on the arbitration lines to change to 0110, which means that B has won the contention. Universal Serial Bus (USB) The USB supports two speeds of operation called lowoperation, low speed (1. 5 megabits/s) and full-speed (12 megabits/s). The Th most recent revision of the bus specification (USB i i f h b ifi i 2. 0) introduced a third speed of operation, called high-speed (480 megabits/s).The USB has been designed to meet several key objectives: -P Provid e a simple, low-cost, and easy to use interconnection id i l l t d t i t ti system that overcomes the difficulties due to the limited number of I/O ports available on a computer – Accommodate a wide range of data transfer characteristics for I/O devices, including telephone and Internet connections / , g p – Enhance user convenience through a †plug-and-play† mode of operation USB Bandwidths: A low-speed rate of 1. 5 Mbit/s (~183 kB/s) is defined by USB 1. 0.It is intended primarily to save cost in lowbandwidth human interface devices (HID) such as keyboards, ( ) y , mice, and joysticks. The full-speed rate of 12 Mbit/s (~1. 43 MB/s) is the full speed ( 1. 43 basic USB data rate defined by USB 1. 1. All USB hubs support full-bandwidth. A high-speed (USB 2. 0) rate of 480 Mbit/s (~57 MB/s) was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of falling back to full bandwidth operation if necessary; they are full-bandwidth backward compatible. Connectors a re identical. SuperSpeed ( d (USB 3. 0) rate produces upto 4800 Mbit/s ) d bi / (~572 MB/s or 5 Gbps)Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an intermediate control point between the host and the I/0 devices devices. At the root of the tree, a root hub connects the entire tree to the host computer. The leaves of the tree are the I/0 p / devices being served. The tree structure enables many devices to be connected while using only simple point-topoint serial links. Each hub has a number of ports where devices may be connected, including other hubs. In normal operation, a hub g copies a message that it receives from its upstream connection to all its downstream ports.As A a result, a message sent b the host computer is lt t by th h t t i broadcast to all I/O devices, but only the addressed device will respond to that message. A message from an I/O device is sent only upstream towards the root of the tree and is not seen by other devices. Hence, th USB enables th h t t communicate with the I/O H the bl the host to i t ith th devices, but it does not enable these devices to communicate with each other. The USB operates strictly on the basis of polling. A device may send a message only in response to a poll message from the host host.Hence, upstream messages do not encounter conflicts or interfere with each other, as no two devices can send other messages at the same time. This restriction allows hubs to be simple, low-cost devices. USB protocol requires that a message transmitted on a highspeed link is always transmitted p y at high speed, even when the ultimate receiver is a low-speed device. device Hence, a message intended for device D is sent at high speed from the root hub to hub A, then A forwarded at low speed to device D. The latter transfer will take a long time, during which highl ti d i hi h hi h speed traffic to other nodes is allowed to continue.Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7-bit ad dress. This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the addresses used on the processor bus. A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and addresses are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or when it is powered on, it has the address 0. The hardware of the hub to which this device is connected is capable of detecting that the device has been connected, and it records this f d hi fact as part of i own status i f f its information. Periodically, the host polls each hub to collect status information and learn about new devices that may have been added or disconnected. When the host is informed that a new device has been connected, connected it uses a sequence of commands to send a reset signal on the corresponding hub port, read information from the device about its capabilities, send configuration information to the device, and assign the device a unique USB address. O d i d i th d i i dd Once this thi se quence is completed the device begins normal operation and responds only to the new address. Read about USB protocols Isochronous traffic on USB and USB FRAME

Obesity Essay

One in every three Americans is obese. Worthy of notice is the statistical record showing that in the United States, roughly 300,000 deaths per year are directly related to obesity (http://www. medicinenet. com/obesity_weight_loss/page6. htm, 2003). This is alarming. The present day is perfectly described as a product of Mcdonaldization. In all walks of life, fast food restaurants are visible. This is a fact which greatly affects the health conditions of citizens particularly at an early age. One thing is attributable to this: people are not walking enough and people are not physically working enough! Worthy of notice are the effects of less walk and less physical activity. These include obesity and overweight. Obesity and overweight issues has been a subject of many inquiries nowadays. To define the two may be useful to distinguish one from the other. Obesity is simply one having excess fats in the body. Overweight on the other hand is one having excess weight over and above than the normal relative to one’s sex, gender and height (http://www. naturesintentionsnaturopathy. com/weight-loss/facts. htm, no year). More often than not, only cases of obesity result to various physical or health trouble ((http://www. annecollins. om/lose_weight/overweight. htm, no year)). But why tackle on both issues? Both obesity and overweight have physical and social adverse impact in day to day activities. First, on overweight. Experience tells us that having an overweight body is physically heavy to carry. Thus, oversized individuals tend to work less and move less. Resulting as it does to becoming more overweight and eventually becoming obese. Second, on obesity. Obesity, being a health dilemma may result to chronic diseases including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, stroke, heart attack, cancer osteoarthritis, to name a few (http://www. medicinenet. om/obesity_weight_loss/page6. htm, 2003). More importantly, obesity decreases life expectancy (http://www. annecollins. com/lose_weight/overweight. htm, no year). This is because studies show that obesity is associated with several diseases leading to early death. Caveat to all is the fact that not all overweight are obese and that not all obese are overweight. Thus, health problems associated with obesity may not be present in individuals who are merely overweight. nevertheless, it can be observed that solution to obesity is not in any way a hindrance. It does not have any adverse effect on the health of indidividuals, whether young or old. The way of resolving the problem is to first determine the causes. What causes obesity and overweight? One major reason of obesity and overweight is laziness. This means the refusal of one person to transport one’s self from home to gym. Research shows that over 34% of female and 12% of male adolescents take to time for leisure physical activity during a one-week period (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Social_influences_on_fitness_behavior, no year). Moreover, present leisure among teenagers and youngsters are focused on accessing computers and the internet. Thus, having little time or worst, no time at all for any physical activity. Considering these causes, attention may now be focused on resolving the problem. First is the Wellness on Wheels in England (WOW). England created a mobile gym with electronic fitness monitoring equipment. This was resorted to because of there is greater probability for individuals to involve in physical activity. Second is the Walking School Bus project. This was initiated by the Heritage Elementary School in San Diego. This allows the students to walking to their respective designated spots for purposes of waiting for people for a train of people to pick them up. This gives the students the opportunity to walk along with their peers in going to school (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Social_influences_on_fitness_behavior, no year). In this way, children at an early age are already exposed to physical activity. Because we have to remember that obesity starts at an early age. It is but proper that solution or shall I say prevention should likewise start at these ages. Both these projects boil down into one, physical activity or physical exercise. As said, people are not walking enough; people are not physically working enough! Walking and physical exercise of 30 minutes a day, for three days a week can lose up to a quarter-pound of fat a week. Constant activity could lose 12 to 15 pounds of fat from exercise alone. Take note, this is permanent solution (http://www. annecollins. com/lose_weight/overweight. htm, no year) as opposed to drastic ones. Constant physical activity and exercise such as walking help burn calories (http://www. medicinenet. com/obesity_weight_loss/page6. htm, 2003). More importantly, the United States is nowadays focusing projects in reducing obesity starting at early childhood. Thus, schools are the subject of various projects not only dealing with physical activity but on the health diet as well (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Obesity#Environmental_factors, no year). This is amazing but true. Thus, it is highly encouraged for people to take time to walk and participate in an activity which requires movement of the body, the best way being is walking. More importantly, notice should be given that prevention is better than cure. Thus, prevention particularly at an early age should be given particular attention.